Contemporary pingos: a discussion
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.26485/BP/1978/27/8Keywords:
open system, closed system, type of ice, capillary modelAbstract
The principal difference between open and closed system pingos is believed to be in the water source and growth site, rather than in the type of ice. There appears to be a continuum from tabular sheets of injection ice, which are, of course, not pingos, through pingos of intrusive to segregated ice, to flat areas underlain by segregated ice. Thus it is the mound form, rather than ice type, which characterizes a pingo. The growth of open and closed system pingos can be explained by the capillary model which accounts for both the growth of ice and also for pore water expulsion which is associated with closed system pingos. When the capillary model of ice lensing is applied to pingos, the bending resistance of the superincumbent material must be taken into consideration in computing the total uplift resistance.
References
Balduzzi, F., 1959 - Experimental investigation of soil freezing (in German). Mitt. d. Versuchsanstalt f. Wasserbau. und Erdbau, No. 44. Trans. from the German, Ottawa; National Research, Council Oanada, TT-912, 1960; 43 p.
Balkwill, H. R., Roy, K. J., Hopkins, W. S. and Sliter, W. V., 1914 - Glacial features and pingos, Amund Ringnes Island, Arctic Archipelago. Can. J. Earth Sci., 11; pp. 1319-1325.
Barr, W. and Syroteuk, M., 1973 - The pingos of the Tuktoyaktuk area. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask., Musk-Ox Publ., No. 12; pp. 3-12.
Bastin, B., Juvigné, E., Pissart, A. and Thorez, J., 1974 - Etude d'une coupe degagee a travers un rempart d'une cicatrice de piugo de la Brackvenn. Ann. Soc. Géol. de Belgique, 97; pp. 341-358.
Baulin, V. V., Dubiov, G. I. and Uvarkin, Yu. T., 1973 - The main features of the structure and development of permafrost of the West Siberian Plain (in Russian). 2nd International Permafrost Conference, Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R., Siberian Branch, Yakutsk, 2; pp. 10-16.
Beskow, G., 1935 - Soil freezing and frost heaving with special application to roads and railroads. Sveriges Geolog. Unders., Ser. C, No. 375. Trans. into English with Supplement. Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinoia, 1947, 145 p.
Bik, M. J. J., 1969 - The origin and age of the prairie mounds of southern Alberta, Canada. Biuletyn Peryglacjalny, 19; pp. 85-130.
Bleich, V. K. E., 1974 - Zur Entstehung der Pingos im Mackenzie Delta, N.W.T. Polarforschung, 44 (l); pp. 60-66.
Bobov, N. G., 1960 - Pingo formation under modern conditions in the watershed between the Lena and Vilyui Rivers (in Russian). Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, ser Geogr., 5; pp. 64-68.
Bobov, N. G., 1969 - The formation of beds of ground ice. Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, ser. Geogr., 6; pp. 63-68. Trans. from the Russian: Soviet Geog. Review and Translation, 11 (6), 1970; pp. 456-463.
Bostrom, R. C., 1967 - Water expulsion and pingo formation in a region affected by subsidence. J. Glaciology, 6 (46); pp. 568-572.
Brown, R. J. E., 1973 - Ground ice as an initiator of landforms in permafrost regions. Proc. 3rd Guelph Symposium on Geomorphology 1973 (B. D. Fahey and R. D. Thompson Eds.). Norwich, England: Geo Abstracts Ltd.; pp. 25-42.
Brown, R. J. E. and Péwé, T. L., 1973 - Distribution of permafrost in North America and its relationship to the environment: a review, 1963 - 1973. Permafrost: The North American Contribution to the 2nd International Conference. Washington: National Academy Sei.; pp. 71-100.
Brown, W. G., 1964 - Difficulties associated with predicting depth of freeze or thaw. Can. Geotech. J., 1 (4); pp. 215-226.
Castro, G., 1969 - Liquefaction of sands. Harvard University, Cambriilge, Mass., Soil Mechanics Series, No. 81: 112 p.
Chekotillo, A. M., Tsuid A. A. and Makarov, V. N., 1960 - Icings in the U.S.S.R. and their control (in Russfan). Amur Publ. House, 207 p. Trans. by Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover N.H., Ad 711 933, 1970; 258 p.
Craig, B. G., 1959 - Pingo in the Thelon Valley, Northwest Territories: radiocarbon age and historical significance of the contained organic material. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 70; pp. 509-510.
Cruickshank, J. G. and Colhoun, E. A., 1965 - Observations on pingos and other landforms in Schuchertdal, northeast Greenland. Geografiska Annaler, 47, Ser. A; pp..224-236.
Everett, D. H. 1961 - The thermodynamics of frost damage to porous solids. Trans. Faraday Society, No. 465, vol. 57, Pt. 9; pp. 1541-1551.
Everett, D. H., and Haynes, J. M., 1965 - Capillary properties of some model pore system with special reference to frost damage. Biulletin Rilem, No. 27; pp. 31-38.
Flemal, R. C., 1976 - Pingos and pingo scars: their characteristics, distribution, and utility in reconstructing former permafrost environments. Quaternary Research, 6 (1); pp. 37-53.
Fotiev, S. M., Danilva, N. S. and Sheveleva, N. S., 1974 - Geocryological conditions of Central Siberia (in Russian). Moscow. Academy Sciences USSR, Siberian Division; 146 p.
Franklin, J., 1828 - Narrative of a second expedition to the shores of the polar see in the years 1825, 1826, and 1827. London, John Murray, 320 p.
Fraser, J. K., 1956 - Physiographie notes on features in the Mackenzie Delta area. Canadian Geographer, 8; pp. 18-23.
French, H. M., 1971 - Ice core mounds and patterned ground, southern Banks Island, Western Canadian Arctic. Geografiska Annaler, 53, ser. A,; pp. 32-38.
French, H. M., 1975 - Pingo investigations and terrain disturbance studies, Banks Island, District of Franklin. Geol. Surv. Can., Paper 75-1A; pp. 459-464.
French, H. M., 1976 - Pingo investigations, Banks Island, District of Franklin. Geol. Surv. Can., Paper 76-1A; pp. 235-238.
Friedman, J. D., Johansson, C. E., Oskarsson, N., Svensson, H., Thorarinsson, S. and Williams Jr., R. S., 1971 - Observations on Icelandic polygon surface and palsa areas. Photo interpretation and field studies. Lund Studies in Geography, Ser. A: Physical Geography, No. 51 (3-4); p. 115-145.
Fyles, J. G., 1963 - Surficial geology of Victoria and Stefansson Islands, District of Franklin. Geol. Surv. Canada Bull., 101; 38 p.
Fyles, J. G., Heginbottom, J. A. and Rampton, V. N., 1972 - Quaternary geology and geomorphology, Mackenzie Delta to Hudson Bay. 24th. Int'l. Geol. Congress, Montreal, Excursion A-30; 23 p.
Gell, A., 1975 - Tension crack ice, icing-mound ice, Tuktoyaktuk Coast. District of Mackenzie (1070). Geol. Surv. Can., Paper 75-1A; p. 465-466.
Gell, A., 1976 - Underground ice in permafrost, Mackenzie Delta - Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula, N.W.T. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. Ph.D. thesis, unpublished.
Gordeev, P. P., 1972 - Mounds in the basin of the Poluya River. Geocryologic and hydrogeologic research in Siberia (in Russian). Academy of Science of U.S.S.R., Siberian Branch, Yakutsk; pp. 106-110.
Gravis, G. F., 1971 - Seasonal bulging mounds as an indicator of perenially frozen soil (in Russian). Geocryologic Research, Academy of Sciences of U.S.S.R., Siberian Branch, Yakutsk; pp. 23-32.
Grigoryev, N. F., 1966 - Perenially frozen rocks of the coastal zone of Yakutia (in Russian). Ed. Nauka, Moscow; 178 p. Draft Trans. 512, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, N. H., 1976; 192 p.
Gussow, W. C., 1934 - Piercement domes in Canadian Arctic. Bull. Am. Ass. Pet. Geol., 38 (10); pp. 2225-2226.
Gussow, W. C., 1962 - Energy source of intrusive masses. Royal Society of Canada, Trans., 3rd Series, vol. 56, Sec. 3; pp. 1-19.
Hamelin, L.-E. and Cailleux, A., 1969 - Les palses dans le bassin de 1a GrandeRiviere de la Baleine. Rev. Geogr. Montr., 23 (3): pp. 329-337.
Holmes, G. W., Hopkins, D. M. and Foster, H. L., 1966 - Distribution and age of pingos of interior Alaska. Int'l. Oonf. Permafrost Proc., Lafayette, Ind. 1963, Washington, National Research Oouncil Publ. 1287; pp. 88 - 93.
Holmes, G. W., Hopkins, D. M. and Foster, H. L., 1968 - Pingos in central Alaska. Washington, Geol. Surv. Bull. 1.241-h; 40 p.
Hughes, O. L., 1969 - Distribution of open-system pingos in central Yukon Territory with respect to glacial limits. Geol. Surv. Canada, Paper 69-34; 8 p.
Hughes, O. L., Rampton, V. N. and Rutter, N. W., 1972 - Quaternary geology and geomorphology, southern and central Yukon (northern Canada). 24th, Int'l. Geol. Congress, Montreal, E:x:cursion All; 59 p.
Hussey, K. M. and Michelson, R. W., 1966 - Tundra relief features near Point Barrow, Alaska..Arctic, 19 (2); pp. 162 - 183.
Hyvärinen, H. and Ritchie, J. C., 1975 - Pollen stratigraphy of Mackenzie pingo sediments, N.W.T., Canada. Arctic and Alpine Res., 7 (3); pp. 261-272.
Jahn, A., 1975 - Problems of the periglacial zone. Trans. from the Polish, Washington: U.S. Dept. Commerce, National Tech,. Inf. Service, TT72-54011; 223 p.
Janson, L.-E., 1964 - Frost penetration in sandy soil. Stockholm: Trans. Royal Inst. of Tech., Nr. 231; 167 p.
Johnson, A. M., 1970 - Physical processes in geology. San Francisco, Freeman, Cooper & Co.; 577 p.
Katasonov, E. M. and Solovyev, P. A., 1969 - Guide to trip round central Yakutia. Int. Symposium Paleogeography and Periglacial Phenomena of Pleistocene, Yakutsk; 87 p.
Khakimor, Kh. R., 1957 - Problems in the theory and practice of artificial soil freezing (in Russian): Moscow, Publ. House, Acad. Sei., U.S.S.R. Trans. by Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, N.H., 1970, U.S. Dept. Commerce AD 7ll 891; 178 p.
Krivulin, K. P., 1972 - The structure of buling mounds formed by marine sediments (olenek Delta atea) (in Russian). Problems of Oryolithology, Moscow State University, 2; pp. 78-84.
Kudryavtsev, V. A., 1974 - Basis for forecasting the extent of ground freezing in engineering and geological research (in Russian). Moscow University Publ; 431 p.
Leffingwell, E. De K., 1919 - The Canning River region, northern Alaska. Washington: U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Paper 109; 251 p.
Lindqvist, S. and Mattsson, J. O., 1965 - Studies on the thetmal structure of a pals. Lund Studies in Geography, Ser. A: Physical Geography, No 34; pp. 38-49.
Lundqvist, J., 1969 - Earth and ice mounds: a terminological discussion. The Periglacial Environment (T. L. Péwé, Ed.). Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press; pp. 203-215.
Maarleveld, G. C., 1965 - Frost mounds, a summary of the literature of the past decade. Meded. Geol. Sticht., No. 17; pp. 3-16.
Mackay, J. R., 1962 - Pingos of the Pleistocene Mackenzie Delta area. Ottawa, Geographical Bull., 18; pp. 21-63.
Mackay, J. R., 1963 - The Mackenzie Delta area, N.W.T., Canada, Ottawa, Geographical Branch, Memoir 8; 202 p.
Mackay, J. R., 1965 - Gas-domed mounds in permafrost, Kendall Island, N.W.T. Ottawa, Geographical Bull., 7 (2); pp. 105-115.
Mackay, J. R., 1966 - Pingos in Canada. Int'l. Conf. Permafrost Proc., Lafayette, Ind. 1963, Washington, National Research Council Publ. 1287; pp. 71-76.
Mackay, J. R., 1968 - Discussion of the theory of pingo formation by water expulsion in a region affected by subsidence. J. Glaciology, 7 (50); pp. 346-351.
Mackay, J. R., 1971 - The origin of massive icy beds in permafrost, western arctic coast. Can. J. Earth Sci., 8 (4); pp. 397-422.
Mackay, J. R., 1972a - Some observations on the growth of pingos. Mackenzie Delta Area Monograph (D. E. Kerfoot, Ed.). 22nd Int'l Geog. Congress, Montreal; pp. 141-148.
Mackay, J. R., 1972b - The world of underground ice. Ann. Ass. Am. Geog., 62 (1); pp. 1-22.
Mackay, J. R., 1973 - The growth of pingos, western arctio coast, Canada. Can. J. Earth Sci., 10 (6); pp. 979-1004.
Mackay, J. R., 1975a - Freezing processes at the bottom of permafrost, Tuktovaktuk Peninsula area, District of Miackenzie (107C). Geol. Surv. Can., Paper 75-1A; pp. 471-474.
Mackay, J. R., 1975b - Some resistivity surveys of permafrost thickness, Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula, N.W.T. Geol. Surv. Canada, Paper 75-1B; pp. 177-180.
Mackay, J. R., 1976a - Ice segregation at depth in permafrost. Geol. Surv. Canada, Paper 76-1A; pp. 287-288.
Mackay, J. R., 1976b - The age of Ibyuk Pingo, Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula, N.W.T. Geol. Surv. Canada, Paper 76-1B (in press).
Mackay, J. R. and Black, R. F., 1973 - Origin, composition, and structure of perennially frozen ground and ground ice: a review. Permafrost: The North American Contribution to the 2nd International Conference. Washington, National Academy Sciences; pp. 189-192.
Mackay, J. R. and Stager, J. K., 1966 - The structure of some pingos in the Mackenzie Delta area, N.W.T. Ottawa, Geographwal Bulletin, 8 (4); pp. 360-368.
Martin, R. T., 1959 - Rhythmic ice banding in soil. Washington, Highway Res. Board Bull. 218; pp. 11-23.
Mathews, W. H., 1963 - Quaternary stratigraphy and geomorphology of the Fort St. John area, northeastern British Columbia. Victoria. B.C., Dept. Mines and Petroleum Resources; 22 p.
McRoberts, E. C., 1975 - Some aspects of a simple secondary creep model for deformations in permafrost slopes. Can. Geotech. J., 12 (l); pp. 98-105.
McRoberts, E. C. and Morgenstern, N. R., 1975 - Pore water expulsiou during freezing. Can. Geotech. J., 12; pp. 130-141.
Melamed, V. G., 1970 - Study of heat and mass transfer in freezing fine grained soils (in Russian). Moscow University Permafrost Studies, 10; pp. 3-14.
Müller, F., 1959 - Observations on pingos (in German). Meddelelser om Grönland, 153, 127 p. Trans. from the German: Ottawa, National Research Council Canada, TT-1073, 1963; 117 p.
Müller, F., 1972 - Analysis of some stratigraphic observations and radiocarbon dates from two pingos in the Mackenzie Delta area, N.W.T. Arctic, 15 (4); pp. 278-288.
Penner, E., 1958 - Pressures developed in a porous granular system as a result of ice segregation. Washington, Highway Res. Board, Sp. Rept. 40; pp. 191-199.
Penner, E., 1959 - The mechanism of frost heaving in soils. Washington, Highway Res. Board Bull., No. 225; pp. 1-22.
Péwé, T. L., 1975 - Quaternary geology of Alaska. Washington, Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 835; 145 p.
Pihlainen, J. A., Brown, R. J. E. and Legget, R. F., 1956 - Pingo in the Mackenzie Delta, N.W.T. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 67; pp. 1119-1122.
Pissart, A., 1967 - Les pingos de l'Ile Prnice-Patrick (76°N - 120°W). Ottawa, Geographical Bull., 9 (3); pp. 189-217.
Pissart, A., 1970 - Les phenomenes physiques essentiels lies au gel, les structures periglaciaires qui en resultent et leur signification climatique. Ann. Soc. Geologique de Belgique, 93 (1); pp. 7-49.
Pollard, D. D. and Johnson, A. M., 1973 - Mechanics of growth of some laccolithic intrusions in the Henry Mountains, Utah, II: bending and failure of overburden layers and sill formation. Tectonophysics, 18; pp. 311-354.
Popov, A. I., 1967 - Permafrost phenomena in the earth's crust: cryolithology. Moscow University Publieation; 303 p.
Popov, A. I., 1973 - Album of cryogenic formations on the surface of the earth (in Russian). Moscow University Publication; 55 p.
Porsild, A. E., 1929 - Reindeer grazing in northwest Canada. Ottawa, Canada Dept. Interior, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch; 46 p.
Porsild, A. E., 1938 - Earth mounds in unglaeiated arctic northwestern America. Geog. Rev., 28; pp. 46-58.
Railton, J. B. and Sparling, J. H., 1973 - Preliminary studies on the ecology of palsa mounds in northern Ontario. Can. J. Botany, (51 (5); pp. 1037 - 1044.
Rampton, V. N., 1973 - The influenee of ground ice and thermokarst upon the geomorphology of the Mackenzie-Beaufort region. Proc. 3rd Guelph Symposium on Geomorphology, 1973. (B. D. Fahey and R. D. Thompson, Eds.). Norwich, England, Geo Abstracts Ltd.; pp. 43 - 59.
Rampton, V. N. and Mackay, J. R., 1971 - Massive ice and icy sediments through the Tuktoyaktuk Peninsula, Richards Island, and nearby areas, District of Mackenzie. Geol. Surv. Can., Paper 71-21; 16 p.
Rampton, V. N. and Walcott, R. I., 1974 - Gravity profiles across ice-cored topography. Can. J. Earth Sci., 11; pp. 110-122.
Ryckborst, H., 1975 - On the origin of pingos. J. Hydrology, 26; pp. 303-314.
Rozenbaum, G. E., 1965 - Process of formation of „bulging" with a low ice content core (in Russian). Underground Ice (A. I. Popov, Ed.). Moscow University Press; pp. 112 - 119.
Scheidegger, A. E., 1970 - Theoretical Geomorphology. New York, Springer-Verlag; pp. 375-378.
Seppälä, M., 1972 - The term 'palsa'. Ztschr. f. Geomorph., N.F., 16 (4); p. 463.
Sharp, R. P., 1942 - Ground-ice mounds in tundra. Geog. Rev., 32; pp. 417-423.
Shumskiy, P. A., 1959 - Ground (subsurface) ice (in Russian). General Geocryology, Part 1. Moscow, Academy Sei. U.S.S.R. Trans. from the Russian: National Re search Council Canada Tt-1130, 1964; 118 p.
Shumskiy, P. A., 1964 - Principles of structural glaciology. Trans. from the Russian: New York, Dover Publ.; 497 p.
Solovyev, P. A., 1952 - Frost mounds in central Yakutia (in Russian). Issled. Vechn. Merzl. Yakutsk. resp., 3; pp. 227-258.
Solovyev, P. A., 1973a - Thermokarst phenomena and landforms due to frost heaving in central Yakutia. Biuletyn Peryglacjalny,.23; pp. 135-155.
Solovyev, P. A., 1973b - Alass thermokarst relief of central Yakutia. 2nd Int'l. Conf. Permafrost Guidebook, U.S.S.R. Acad. Sci., Siberian Div., Yakutsk; 48 p.
Špolanskaya, N. A. and Evseyev, V. P., 1973 - Domed-hummocky peat bogs of the northern taiga in western Siberia. Biuletyn Peryglacjalny, 22; pp. 271-283.
Stager, J. K., 1956 - Progress report on the analysis of the characteristics and distribution of pingos east of the Mackenzie Delta. Canadian Geographer, No. 7; pp. 13-20.
Strugov, A. S., 1953 - Explosion of a hydrolaccolith (in Russian). Priroda, 11 (3) ;. p. 117.
Svensson, H., 1961 - Observations on palsas. Photographie interpretation and field studies in north Norwegian frost ground areas (in Norwegiau). Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, 28 (5 - 6); pp. 212-227.
Svensson, H., 1964a - Structural observations in the minerogenic core of a pals. Svensk Geografisk Årsbok, 1964; pp. 138-142.
Svensson, H., 1964b - Traces of pingo-like frost mounds. Lund, Studies in Geography, Ser. A., No. 30; pp. 93-106.
Svensson, H., 1969 - A type of circular lakes in northernmost Norway, Geografiska. Annaler, 51A (1-2); pp. 1-12.
Takashi, T. and Masuda, M., 1971 - An experimental study of the effect of loads on frost heaving and soil moisture migration. J. Japanese Soc. Snow and Ice, 33; pp. 109-119.
Takashi, T., Masuda, M. and Yamamoto, H., 1974 - Experimental study on the influence of freezing speed upon frost heave ratio of soil under constant effective stress. J. Japanese Soc. Snow ana Ice, 36; pp. 49-68.
Tarnocai, C., 1970 - Classification of peat landforms in Manitoba. Canada Dept. Agriculture Research Station, Pedology Unit, Winnipeg; 45 p.
Tarnocai, C. and Netterville, J. A., 1976 - Some characteristics of a pingo in the Simpson Peninsula, N.W.T. Can. J. Earth Sci., 13; pp. 490-492.
Tsytovich, N. A., 1975 - The mechanics of frozen ground. Trans. from the Russian: New York, McGraw Hill; 426 p.
Vtiurin, V. I., 1975 - Underground ice in the U.S.S.R. (in Russian). Moscow, Publ. House „Nauka"; 212 p.
Washburn, A. L., 1950 - Patterned ground. Rev. Canadienne de Geographie, 4 (3-4); pp. 5-54.
Washburn, A. L., 1969 - Weathering, frost action, and patterned ground in the Mesters Vig District, Northeast Greenland. Medd. om Gronland, No. 176 (4); 303 p.
Washburn, A. L., 1973 - Periglacial processes and environments. London, Edward Arnold; 320 p.
Watson, E., 1971 - Remains of pingos in Wales and the Isle of Man. Geol. J., 7 (2); pp. 381 - 392.
Williams, J. R., 1970 - Ground water in the permafrost regions of Alaska. Washington, Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 696; 83 p.
Williams, J. R. and Van Everdingen, R. O., 1963 - Groundwater investigations in permafrost regions of North America: a review. Permafrost: The North American Contribution to the 2nd Int'l. Conf. Washington, National Academy Sciences; pp. 435 - 446.
Williams, P. J., 1967 - Properties and behaviour of freezing soils. Oslo, Norwegian Geotech. Inst., Publ. No. 72; 119 p.
Zhestkova, T. N., 1966 - Cryogenic textures and ice formation in porous soil (in Russian). Moscow Publ. House „Nauka"; 99 p.
Zoltai, S. C., 1971 - Southern limit of permafrost features in peat landforms, Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Geol. Ass. Canada Special Paper No. 9; pp. 305-310.
Zoltai, S. C. and Tarnocai, C., 1971 - Properties of a wooded palsa in northern Manitoba. Arctic and Alpine Research, 3 (2); pp. 115-129.
